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13 July 2008
Subject: Online Publications by Glenn Rikowski
Time: 14:02:14 o'clock BST
Author: rikowskigr
Online Publications by Glenn Rikowski
Despite having broken a bone in my elbow on Friday night (making typing more difficult and slower), I've edited, updated and checked my online publications list at the The Flow of Ideas. I've added a few new items and checked all the links. Only one of the links did not work, so I have deleted that item.
Fortunately, I broke a bone in my left elbow and I am right handed, and typing with my right hand only is not so bad - but very slow.
You can view my updated online publications at:
http://www.flowideas.co.uk/?page=pub&sub=Online%20Publications%20Glenn%20Rikowski
Glenn
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12 July 2008
Subject: Against What We Are Worth
Time: 07:55:47 o'clock BST
Author: rikowskigr
Against What We Are Worth
This is the title of a paper that I gave last week at the University of the Aegean, in Rhodes, as part of a Postgraduate Programme on 'Gender and New Educational and Employment Environments in the Information Age'.
The paper formed the basis for a presentation to Masters students at the University of the Aegean, Rhodes, in the 'Summer Workshops on Gender', which was part of the programme noted above.
You can see the paper at:
Rikowski, G. (2008) Against What We Are Worth, a paper prepared for the Post-Graduate Programme: Gender and New Educational and Employment Environments in the Information Age, ‘Summer Workshop on Gender’, at the University of the Aegean, Rhodes, Greece, 4th July, at:
http://www.flowideas.co.uk/?page=articles&sub=Against%20What%20We%20Are%20Worth
Glenn Rikowski
The Rikowski web site, The Flow of Ideas is at: http://www.flowideas.co.uk
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Deadwing
By Porcupine Tree
Release date: 2005-04-26  | Tags: Glenn Rikowski, Ruth Rikowski, The Ockress, The Flow of Ideas
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27 June 2008
Subject: Marxism and Education: Works by Glenn Rikowski
Time: 21:02:45 o'clock BST
Author: rikowskigr
Marxism and Education: Works by Glenn Rikowski
A document providing bibliographic details regarding the main works on Marxism and Education by Glenn Rikowski is now available.
You can view the document at The Flow of Ideas web site, at: http://www.flowideas.co.uk/index.php?page=pub&sub=Marxism%20and%20Education
The Flow of Ideas can be found at: http://www.flowideas.co.uk
Glenn Rikowski - the Volumizer
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Currently listening :
Lightbulb Sun
By Porcupine Tree
Release date: 2008-05-27  | Tags: Glenn Rikowski, The Ockress, Ruth Rikowski, The Flow of Ideas, Victor Rikowski, Marxism and Education
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23 May 2008
Subject: Marxism and Education: Online Resources
Time: 22:37:37 o'clock BST
Author: rikowskigr
Marxism and Education: Online Resources
For those interested in Marxism and Education, Marxist educational theory or Marxian approaches to education, I have put together what I consider to be the most useful and inspiring resources available on the Internet today.
Glenn Rikowski, London, 23rd May 2008
Marxism & Education – from the Marxists Internet Archive
The classic texts: including some of Marx’s statements on education, put together by Andy Blunden for the Marxist Internet Archive. Sections on: Early Ideas on Socialist Education; Socialist Ideas on Education; Lenin on Education; Reports on Soviet Education; Education in Stalinist Russia; Early Childhood and Play; Adolescence and Ethical Development; Society and Individual Development; Cognition and Foundations of Learning; and Paulo Freire.
See: http://www.marxists.org/subject/education/index.htm
Informal Education (InFed)
Barry Burke (2008) writes on Karl Marx and Informal Education, at: http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-marx.htm
Policy Futures in Education – Special Double Issue on Marxist Futures
In 2004, Policy Futures in Education (Vol.2 Nos. 3 & 4) published a double and special issue on Marxism and education. It includes articles by Michael Peters, Simon Marginson, Zeus Leonardo, Mike Cole, Dave Hill and many others. The full contents can be found at: http://www.wwwords.co.uk/pfie/content/pdfs/2/issue2_3.asp The general URL is: http://www.wwwords.co.uk/pfie
Cultural Logic: An Electronic Journal of Marxist Theory & Practice
This journal produced a special issue on Marxism and Education (Vol.4 No.1, Fall 2000). It includes contributions from Peter McLaren, Rich Gibson, Bertell Ollman and many others. The contents can be viewed at: http://clogic.eserver.org/4-1/4-1.html
Workplace: A Journal for Academic Labor
Focusing mainly on higher education, this journal has a number of articles where Marxian analysis is central.
See: http://www.cust.educ.ubc.ca/workplace/
Public Resistance
This journal contains a number of articles written by leading Marxist educational theorists and researchers. See: http://web.mac.com/publicresistance/iWeb/publicresistance/Public%20Resistance.html
Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies (JCEPS)
The Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies carries a number of articles inspired by Marxist and Marxian approaches to education. It also includes reviews of books within the field of Marxism and education.
See: http://www.jceps.com
The Institute for Education Policy Studies (IEPS)
This web site carries a number of papers inspired by Marxian approaches to education. Writers include Peter McLaren, Paula Allman and Glenn Rikowski. This site is organised by Dave Hill, and you can find many papers by him there.
See: http://www.ieps.org.uk.cwc.net/
Rich Gibson’s Education Page for a Democratic Society
This is a great site for radical and Marxist educators! See in particular the ‘Teaching and Education’ and Practical Philosophy’ subsections of ‘Truly Exceptional Topics Rich Gibson Wrote About’ (by clicking option 2 on the home page). See: http://www.richgibson.com/
Peter McLaren: Critical Pedagogy, Paulo Freire, Marxist-Humanism, Eco-socialism and Critical Theory and Education
This is a tremendous web site. It contains a number of freely accessible online articles from one of the world’s leaders on Marxist writings on education and Critical and Revolutionary Pedagogy.
See: http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/pages/mclaren/
David Harvie
David Harvie is one of world’s best writers on education today working from a Marxian perspective. He has a number of online articles at: http://www.le.ac.uk/ulsm/academics/dharvie.html
Education-line
The University of Leeds based resource for online papers on education. If you search for ‘Marxism’ in the search box in ‘Browse the Index’ you get a number of papers by Paula Allman, John Wallis, John W. Morgan, Mike Cole, Dave Hill and others. If you search for ‘Rikowski; you get 7 papers by me. See: http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/
Information for Social Change
This e-journal ran a Special Issue on ‘Education for Social Change’ that contains a number of Marxist-inspired articles on education (Issue No.23, summer 2006): http://libr.org/isc/toc.html
The Flow of Ideas
This is the web site of the Rikowski family. It contains a number of articles on Marxism and education. See: http://www.flowideas.co.uk
Volumizer
Glenn Rikowski’s AOL blog contains many short articles where contemporary education policy in England is analysed via Marxism and Marxian analyses.
See: http://journals.aol.co.uk/rikowskigr/Volumizer
Key Online Articles and Papers on Marxism and Education by Glenn Rikowski:
Rikowski, G. (2004) Marx and the Education of the Future, Policy Futures in Education, Vol.2 Nos. 3 & 4, pp.565-577, online at: http://www.wwwords.co.uk/pdf/viewpdf.asp?j=pfie&vol=2&issue=3&year=2004&article=10_Rikowski_PFEO_2_3-4_web&id=195.93.21.71
Rikowski, G. (2005) Distillation: Education in Karl Marx's Social Universe, Lunchtime Seminar, School of Education, University of East London, Barking Campus, 14th February: http://www.flowideas.co.uk/?page=articles&sub=Distillation
Rikowski, G. (2006) Education and the Politics of Human Resistance, Information for Social Change, Issue No.23 (Summer): http://libr.org/isc/issues/ISC23/B3%20Glenn%20Rikowski.pdf
Rikowski, G. (2007) Marxist Educational Theory Unplugged, a paper prepared for the Fourth Historical Materialism Annual Conference, 9-11th November, School of Oriental & African Studies, University of London: http://www.flowideas.co.uk/?page=articles&sub=Marxist%20Educational%20Theory%20Unplugged
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16 May 2008
Subject: Glenn Rikowski Publications Update 9
Time: 19:27:13 o'clock BST
Author: rikowskigr
Glenn Rikowski Publications Update 9
Online Articles
A comprehensive list of my online articles can now be found at The Flow of Ideas web site. This list supersedes previous such lists posted to the Volumizer. See: http://www.flowideas.co.uk/?page=pub&sub=Online%20Publications%20Glenn%20Rikowski
The most recent additions are:
Rikowski, G. (1998) Three Types of Apprenticeship, Three Forms of Mastery: Nietzsche, Marx, Self and Capital, a departmental paper, School of Education, University of Birmingham, 5th June:
http://www.flowideas.co.uk/?page=articles&sub=Three%20Types%20of%20Apprenticeship%20-%20Three%20Forms%20of%20Mastery
Rikowski, G. (2003) The Compression of Critical Space in Education Today, a paper based on lecture notes written for students on the EDU3004 module, ‘Education, Culture & Society’, Education Studies, School of Education, University of Northampton, 10th March, expanded 5th May 2008. Online at:
http://www.flowideas.co.uk/?page=articles&sub=Critical%20Space%20in%20Education
Rikowski, G. (2003) The business takeover of schools, Mediactive: Ideas Knowledge Culture, Issue 1 (July), pp.91-108: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-157947620.html
Rikowski, G. (2007) Private Schools as Charities and New Labour's Knowledge Economy, a paper produced for The Flow of Ideas, 9th March, London:
http://www.flowideas.co.uk/?page=articles&sub=Private%20Schools%20as%20Charities
Rikowski, G. (2007) The Confederation of British Industry and the Business Takeover of Schools, a paper produced for The Flow of Ideas, London, 3rd June:
http://www.flowideas.co.uk/?page=articles&sub=The%20CBI%20and%20the%20Business%20Takeover%20of%20Schools
Rikowski, G. (2007) Critical Pedagogy and the Constitution of Capitalist Society, a paper prepared for the Migrating University: From Goldsmiths to Gatwick Conference, Panel 2, 'The Challenge of Critical Pedagogy', Goldsmiths College, University of London, 14th September:
http://www.flowideas.co.uk/?page=articles&sub=Critical%20Pedagogy%20and%20Capitalism
Rikowski, G. (2007) Marxist Educational Theory Unplugged, a paper prepared for the Fourth Historical Materialism Annual Conference, 9-11th November, School of Oriental & African Studies, University of London:
http://www.flowideas.co.uk/?page=articles&sub=Marxist%20Educational%20Theory%20Unplugged
Rikowski, G. (2008) The Binding Ring: Communitarianism for Schools on a Foundation of ‘British Values’? A paper prepared for the EDU3004 module, ‘Education, Culture & Society’, Education Studies, School of Education, University of Northampton, at: http://www.flowideas.co.uk/?page=articles&sub=Communitarianism%20for%20Schools
Fielding, S. & Rikowski, G. (1996) Resistance to Restructuring? Post-Fordism in British Primary Schools, School of Education, University of Birmingham, June: http://www.flowideas.co.uk/?page=articles&sub=Post-Fordism%20in%20Primary%20Schools
Short Articles at the Volumizer
The significance of these articles is that I use concepts and ideas developed over many years to analyse and critique education policies. A few of them explore social time and transhumanism, as well as education policies and practices via Marxian ideas. These articles can be found at The Flow of Ideas: http://www.flowideas.co.uk/?page=articles&sub=Volumizer
Key Chapters in Edited Collections
Rikowski, G. (2002) Education, Capital and the Transhuman, in: D. Hill, P. McLaren, M. Cole & G. Rikowski (Eds.) Marxism Against Postmodernism in Educational Theory, Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
Rikowski, G. (2002) Fuel for the Living Fire: Labour-Power! In: A. Dinerstein & M. Neary (Eds.) The Labour Debate: An Investigation into the Theory and Reality of Capitalist Work, Aldershot: Ashgate.
Neary, M. & Rikowski, G. (2002) Time and Speed in the Social Universe of Capital, in: G. Crow & S. Heath (Eds.) Social Conceptions of Time: Structure and Process in Work and Everyday Life, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
McLaren, P. & Rikowski, G. (2005) Pedagogy for Revolution Against Education for Capital: An E-Dialogue on Education in Capitalism Today, in: P. McLaren, Red Seminars: Radical Excursions into Educational Theory, Cultural Politics, and Pedagogy, Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Rikowski, G. (1999) Nietzsche, Marx and Mastery: The Learning Unto Death, in: H. Rainbird & P. Ainley (Eds.) Apprenticeship: Towards a New Paradigm of Learning, London: Kogan Page.
Rikowski, G. (1998) Only Charybdis: The Learning Society Through Idealism, in: S. Ranson (Ed) Inside the Learning Society, London: Cassell Education.
Rikowski, G. (2007) Schools and the GATS Enigma, in: E Wayne Ross & R. Gibson (Eds.) Neoliberalism and Education Reform, Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Articles in Journals (not online)
Those interested in following the development of my work might be interested in the following journal articles. These are not online (unless you have a subscription for the journal):
Rikowski, G. (1992) Work Experience and Part-time Jobs in a Recruitment Context, British Journal of Education and Work, Vol.5 No.1, pp.19-46.
Rikowski, G. (1996) Left Alone: End Time for Marxist Educational Theory? British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol.17 No.4, pp.415-451.
Rikowski, G. (1997) Scorched Earth: Prelude to Rebuilding Marxist Educational Theory, British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol.18 No.4, pp.551-574.
Rikowski, G. (2001) Education for Industry: A Complex Technicism, Journal of Education and Work, Vol14 No.1, pp.29-49.
New Book
Renewing Dialogues in Marxism and Education – Openings Edited by Anthony Green, Glenn Rikowski and Helen Raduntz
Published by Palgrave Macmillan (December 2007)
ISBN-13: 978-14039-7496-9; ISBN-10: 1-4039-7496-9
Purchasing Details:
Palgrave Macmillan, USA & Canada:
http://www.palgrave-usa.com/catalog/product.aspx?isbn=1403974969
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05 May 2008
Subject: The Compression of Critical Space in Education Today
Time: 14:40:14 o'clock BST
Author: rikowskigr
The Compression of Critical Space in Education Today
This is a paper based on lecture notes for my EDU3004 module, 'Education, Culture & Society' in the School of Education, University of Northampton, that were originally written on 10th March 2003.
I have expanded on and edited these lecture notes for this paper.
You can view the finished paper as:
Rikowski, G. (2003) The Compression of Critical Space in Education Today, a paper based on lecture notes written for students on the EDU3004 module, ‘Education, Culture & Society’, Education Studies, School of Education, University of Northampton, 10th March, expanded 5th May 2008. Online at: http://www.flowideas.co.uk/?page=articles&sub=Critical%20Space%20in%20Education
See the Rikowski web site, The Flow of Ideas at: http://www.flowideas.co.uk
The Ockress is at: http://www.theockress.com
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27 April 2008
Subject: Postmodern Dereliction in the Face of Neoliberal Education Policy
Time: 10:23:37 o'clock BST
Author: rikowskigr
Postmodern Dereliction in the Face of Neoliberal Education Policy
Glenn Rikowski, London, 27th April 2008
Introduction
It has been some time since I wrote anything on postmodernism and education. This may be the last time. Certainly (if one can be certain in the light of postmodern thinking), postmodernism in educational writing appears to have declined in terms of its impact in recent years. What moved me to write this article was how postmodernism seems to be at a loss regarding our understanding of neoliberalism in education policy today. Before I move on to this issue the opening sections outline neoliberalism and some of its consequences for education policy.
Neoliberalism …
Neoliberalism is the dominant organising ideology for global capital today. As Ross and Gibson (2007) indicate:
“Neoliberalism is the prevailing political economic paradigm in the world today and has been described as an ideological “monoculture,” in that when neoliberal policies are criticized a common response is that “there is no alternative” (aka TINA)” (p.2).
Thus: it appears to be a juggernaut that invalidates alternative perspectives regarding the organisation of socio-economic social life. In leading capitalist nations, the main political parties tend to converge on its efficacy for running economic and social affairs, and:
“Neoliberalism is embraced by parties across the political spectrum … in that the interests of wealthy investors and large corporations define social and economic policy. The free market, private enterprise, consumer choice, entrepreneurial initiative, deleterious effects of government regulations, and so on, are the tenets of neoliberalism” (Ibid.).
Martinez and Garcia outline neoliberalism as: the rule of the market; cutting public expenditure for social services (such as education and health care); deregulation (reduction of government regulation that might hit profits); privatization; and the elimination of the concept of “the public good” or “community” – and replacing it with “individual responsibility”, forcing people to find individual solutions in education, health care etc. (2000, cited in Ross and Gibson, 2007, p.3).
… and Education
According to Tabb (2001) there are “three main elements involved in the neoliberal model of education” (p.1): making the provision of education more cost-efficient by commodifying the product; testing performance by standardising the experience in a way that allows for multiple-choice testing of results; and focusing on marketable skills (i.e., human capital). For Tabb:
“The three elements are combined in different policies – cutbacks in the public sector, closing “inefficient” programs that don’t directly meet business needs for a trained workforce, and the use of computers and distance learning, in which courses and degrees are packaged for delivery over the Internet by for-profit corporations” (2001, p.2).
These policies indicate that neoliberalism in the field of education is not just a fancy pro-capitalist ideology. It has material consequences for education. Thus:
“Neoliberalism is not just a market ideology. It is a real social process, a particular response to the capitalist crises of the 1970s … The basic point is that neoliberalism, as I understand it, in general and when applied to the schools system in England, is about the development of capital, as well as markets: which takes us into the realm of the commodity and commodification – with value, surplus value and profit in tow. Neoliberalism nurtures the development of capital and seeks to crash down any barriers to capital accumulation” (Rikowski, 2006, p.5).
Once this is acknowledged, then the penetration of neoliberalism into education policy needs to be understood as an aspect of capital accumulation. This in turn involves exploring capitalist education through concepts central to capital’s functioning: value, surplus-value, profit, labour, labour-power, the commodity and other ‘structuring’ concepts pertinent to understanding the nature of capitalist society and education. This enables us to explain neoliberalism in education and educational reform. Whilst postmodernists are clearly involved in critique of (neoliberal) education, they are less concerned with explanation of neoliberal trends in education. This becomes clear when the ideas of Elizabeth Atkinson, the UK’s leading postmodern thinker in education, are explored.
Postmodern Dereliction
Atkinson views postmodernism as: resistance toward certainty and resolution; rejection of fixed notions of reality, knowledge, or method; acceptance of complexity, of lack of clarity, and of multiplicity; acknowledgement of subjectivity, contradiction and irony; irreverence for traditions of philosophy or morality; deliberate intent to unsettle assumptions and presuppositions; refusal to accept boundaries or hierarchies in ways of thinking; and disruption of binaries that define things as either/or (in Atkinson and Cole, 2007, p.123). This perspective on social life makes explanation problematic, especially given the first two aspects. It seems all we are left with is a multiplicity of perspectives that fall short of a theory, i.e. an explanation of any particular social phenomenon. Indeed, I have argued in Cole et al (2001) that “… they [postmodernists] are just not interested in explanation!” (p.39). Refusal to explain something as crucial to an understanding of educational reform today as neoliberalism constitutes dereliction of responsibility. This dereliction makes an anti-capitalist politics of education impossible.
In a dialogue with Mike Cole (in Atkinson and Cole, 2007), Elizabeth Atkinson takes Cole to task in arguing:
“You say it’s important to theorize the world because we need to provide a way of understanding it; postmodernism doesn’t provide a way of understanding the world, it provides ways of looking and seeing and interpreting and constructing, not an answer to a problem” (Atkinson in Atkinson and Cole, 2007, pp.123-124).
Thus, on Atkinson’s account, postmodernism is only concerned with providing a range of alternatives, perspectives or possibilities for understanding social phenomena. It has no conception of one explanation being better than another; hence, no real grasp that political action in education and other areas should be based on the most powerful explanation of what is going on there. This is made clear when Atkinson states:
“I’m saying that we need to look at a range of alternative possibilities, not to weigh them up, but to see how complex the reality of these things is; how very complex the intersections of different discourses in any situation can be, and what we can make of those intersections” (Atkinson in Atkinson and Cole, 2007, p.124).
But weighing up and assessing perspectives and explanations (theories) of educational and related phenomena, and contemporary and historical experiences in the class struggle in education, is central for a viable politics of education. If this is given up to musings about possibilities then strategic thinking in educational and social transformation goes outof the window. All we are left with is endless question posing, for:
“… postmodernism is not trying to provide you with an answer as to why society is at it is. It is trying to ask more questions … It is asking the questions, it is not being so sure, that makes a difference” (Atkinson in Atkinson and Cole, 2007, p.124).
A ‘programme’ for educational and social transformation based on ‘not being sure’ is unlikely to get many takers, I would wager. People would be right to demand more; to ask for an analysis of neoliberalism in education, for example. This analysis would need to delve deep into the core of capitalist society. In light of this, postmodern dereliction is not good enough.
References
Atkinson, E. & Cole, M. (2007) Indecision, Social Justice, and Social Change: A Dialogue on Marxism, Postmodernism, and Education, in: A. Green, G. Rikowski & H. Raduntz (Eds.) Renewing Dialogues in Marxism and Education – Openings, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Cole, M., Hill, D., Rikowski, G. & McLaren, P. (2001) Red Chalk: On Schooling,Capitalism & Politics, Brighton: The Institute for Education Policy Studies.
Martinez, E. & Garcia, A. (2000) What is neoliberalism? A Brief Definition, updated 26th February, online at: http://www.globalexchange.org/campaigns/econ101/neoliberalDefined.html
Rikowski, G. (2006) Caught in the Storm of Capital: Teacher Professionalism, Managerialism and Neoliberalism in Schools, a paper prepared for Education, Culture & Society (EDU3004) Students, School of Education, University of Northampton, 30th October: http://www.flowideas.co.uk/?page=articles&sub=Caught%20in%20the%20Storm%20of%20Capital
Ross, E. Wayne & Gibson, R. (2007) Introduction, to: E. Wayne Ross & R. Gibson(Eds.) Neoliberalism and Education Reform, Cresskill NJ: Hampton Press.
Tabb, W. (2001) Globalization and Education as a Commodity, Clarion (summer), at: http://www.psc-cuny-org/jcglobalization.htm
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26 April 2008
Subject: Post-Fordism and Schools in England
Time: 21:27:24 o'clock BST
Author: rikowskigr
Post-Fordism and Schools in England
Glenn Rikowski, London, 26th April 2008
Introduction
Post-Fordism was a concept that was very fashionable in the social sciences in the 1980s. It reached a high point of intellectual influence in the mid-1990s, thereafter suffering a decline. Like most intellectual movements, Post-Fordism reached education theory and research late. But by the early 1990s writers were attempting to apply the concept to education.
Fordism
To understand what “Post-Fordism” we need to examine “Fordism”. Fielding notes that: “Fordism has been viewed as a set of industrial and social practices associated with Henry Ford” (und, p.1) and his automotive factory at Highland Park in Detroit during 1909–1919. Highland Park exhibited the archetypal Fordist mode of production: dedicated equipment; semi-skilled workers (under a management regime based on Taylorist principles); a standardised product; and a move from craft to mass production (the assembly line). Thompson (und.) notes that Ford also brought in some technical innovations: process engineering and standardisation (inter-changeability of parts); and that he exploited advances in machine tools and gauging systems to attain inter-changeability. With these changes the assembly line was possible for car production. Assemblers performed a simple task repetitively. Ford also used the electric motor to reconfigure production; they were placed on the assembly line. The moving assembly line was introduced at Highland Park in 1914. He also brought in a number of administrative and social control systems based on the Prussian bureaucratic model of the late-19th century: centralised materials requirements and logistical planning; control by rules; standard operating procedures; and the decomposition of tasks to their simplest.
Yet Ford faced huge problems of labour unrest, absenteeism and labour turnover in the early years of Highland Park (Clarke, 1990). Work there was dehumanising. In desperation Ford brought in: a new ‘skill wages’ ladder in 1913; and a Savings and Loans scheme (for security). These had little impact, so he brought in the ‘Five Dollar Day’ in 1914: higher wages, less hours and ‘pervasive social engineering’ through his notorious Sociological Department, notes Clarke (1990). These measures had a big impact on production. The Sociological Department attempted to regulate workers’ lives through promoting Puritan attitudes and hard work. This included snooping on workers’ habits after work as well as during work-time. Those deemed to have sound personal, moral and social habits were put on the ‘Five Dollar Day’. Trade unions were outlawed.
Clarke (1992) argues that the term ‘Fordism’ was widely used in the 1930s and 1940s, but fell out of favour in the 1950s and 1960s as greater state involvement in the economy and society along Keynesian lines was pursued by governments. Fordism also became an idea that attempted to encapsulate the nature of whole of Western societies from the late 1970s.
The Education Reform Act (1988) and Fordism
The Education Reform Act brought in by the Conservatives in 1988 appeared to have a number of ‘Fordist’ elements. The most prominent was the National Curriculum. Pupils in state schools were subjected to a standard learning package that was monitored on the basis of levels of learning, targets, standard content and stipulations regarding how learning was to be ‘delivered’. On top of this was a massive monitoring regime, involving SATs testing and tough inspections carried out by the Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted). Finally, results were published in league tables, and this gave a marketising twist to a generally standardised project as individual kids, their teachers and schools could be judged by ‘public opinion’.
Indeed, the way in which schools (their pupils, teachers and outputs) featured in the media (especially local newspapers) functioned in similar ways to Ford’s Sociological Department. Bad schools were subject to censure and ultimately declining admissions, whilst those with good results and perceived sound reputations were rewarded with parents attempting to get their kids into them; the functional equivalent of Ford’s ‘Five Dollar Day’.
However, the ‘one size fits all’ National Curriculum and the (bog) standard features of state comprehensive schools (notwithstanding 164 grammar schools and thousands of private schools) could be viewed as an ‘industrial relic’: factory schooling for the masses that was inappropriate for the New Times of Post-Fordism. This paralleled arguments about rigid Keynesian economics failing to stimulate economic growth whilst letting in both inflation and unemployment in the late-1970s and early 1980s. Enter de-regulation of various kinds: monetarismand the end of exchange controls; neoliberalism; privatisation of public utilities; and, it seems, Post-Fordism.
Post-Fordism and Schools in England
Post-Fordism was apparently first ‘discovered’ in northern Italy: in Emilia-Romagna (clothing industry) by two industrial sociologists: Piore and Sabel. It was based on the notion of flexible specialisation. It includes the following aspects (from Hirst, 1989; Clarke, 1990): core/periphery workforces, full-time permanent core, part-time and insecure peripheral workers; specialised goods; particular and changing markets; flexible general purpose machines; predominantly skilled labour; industrial districts (e.g. Emilia-Romagna); institutions which link firms into networks; close relations with sub-contractors (outsourcing and sub-contracting); the dissolution of labour security (uncertainty, loss of control for workers); niche markets; fluidity, and more individualism, concerned with style; multi-skilling and tendencies for upskilling and higher job satisfaction (Tomany, 1990); and TQM, JIT (Just-in-Time) etc. aspects of the Japanisation of production.
I cannot review the nature of schools in England today in terms of all the elements of Post-Fordism here. For example, Fielding and Rikowski (1996) have argued that the core aspect of Post-Fordism, flexible specialisation, does have some credence in relation to teachers’ work in primary schools in England. Here, I shall focus on just one issue: niche marketing in England’s schools as an indicator of Post-Fordism.
On this count, the concept of Post-Fordism seems to have relevance for schools in contemporary England. First, there are many types of schools, most of them introduced by the New Labour since 1997: Community Schools (existing comprehensives); Specialist Schools (with increasing specialisms since 2000); Foundation Schools (with some curricular freedoms); Trust Schools; Academies; Beacon Schools (spreading good practice); Leading Edge Schools (fostering innovation); Faith Schools; Grammar Schools; Federated Schools; Schools in Education Action Zones; State Boarding Schools (mainly but not exclusively for the armed forces); and Private or Independent Schools, fee paying schools, ranging from the great ‘Public’ Schools (e.g. Eton, Roedean etc.) to those in cut-price chains, such as Cognita.
Overlaid on these school types is differentiation by age phase, e.g. whether there is a 3-school set up, including middle schools, in a local education authority (LEA). There is also a divide between “selecting” schools (grammar schools, and Academies and specialist schools selecting 10% on ‘aptitude’) and “non-selecting” schools. Finally, ‘ownership’ provides further diversity between: churches for faith schools, Academy sponsors (of various types), foundation status, Trusts, LEAs, and business operators (outsourcing and educational managementorganisations).
When such diversity and differentiation of school types is considered, then Post-Fordist niche marketing has some resonance. Schools are aimed at particular pupil/parent constituencies. This is most obvious with the specialist schools programme, where pupil ‘aptitude’ for, e.g. modern languages or business studies, can be addressed. Such choices are more available in urban areas, with many schools within reasonable travelling distance. Overall, the developing schools system in England incorporates an increasingly diversified product offer.
Whether schools in England will continue to develop along Post-Fordist lines will depend on whether the National Curriculum is maintained. Only its abolition would signify that Post-Fordism has attained a substantial hold over our schools.
References
Clarke, S. (1990) New Utopias for Old: Fordist Dreams and Post-Fordist Fantasies, Capital & Class, winter, no.42, pp.131-155.
Clarke, S. (1992) What in F---‘s Name is Fordism? In: N. Gilbert, R. Burrows & A. Pollert (Eds.) Fordism and Flexibility, London: Macmillan Press.
Fielding, S. (und.) Post-Fordism and Primary Schools, School of Education, University of Birmingham, unpublished manuscript.
Fielding, S. & Rikowski, G. (1996) Resistance to Restructuring? Post-Fordism in British Primary Schools, School of Education, University of Birmingham, June: http://www.flowideas.co.uk/?page=articles&sub=Post-Fordism%20in%20Primary%20Schools
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